Other historians who work on estimates of the population of the early modern Empire suggest the population declined from 20million to some 1617million by 1650. [48] The Hungarian denomination "German Roman Empire" (Hungarian: Nmet-rmai Birodalom) is the shortening of this. [203][204], In its earlier days, the Empire provided the principal medium for Christianity to infiltrate the pagans' realms in the North and the East (Scandinavians, Magyars, Slavic people etc.). The Council of Princes was divided into two "benches", one for secular rulers and one for ecclesiastical ones. Despite the name, it was actually made for King Charles II after the previous golden crown was melted down by the Parliamentarians after the English Civil War. [140] Under Paul von Liechtenstein, the Hofkammer was entrusted with not only hereditary lands' affairs, but Maximilian's affairs as the German king too. The crown was probably made in western Germany under Ottone I with additions from Corrado II, entirely under Corrado II, or under Corrado III. [192] On a more personal level, Charles failed to persuade the German princes to support his son Philip, whose "awkward and withdrawn character and lack of German language skills doomed this enterprise to failure".[193]. Feuds often happened between local rulers. These were a feature of the now-lost crown of Byzantine emperors, as in the mosaic portrait of Justinian I in the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. reliquaries, processional or altar crosses (crux gemmata), or precious book covers such as those of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram and Codex Aureus of Echternach. Both the 9th-century Carolingian and 10th-century Ottonian realms are contenders, although the Latin term sacrum Romanum imperium did not gain widespread currency until the 13th century. In 1356, Emperor Charles IV issued the Golden Bull, which limited the electors to seven: the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and the archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, and Trier. This practice was often met with irony and scorn from local councils, who wanted to protect local codes. Peter Wilson argues that the institutions and structures developed by the Imperial Reform mostly served German lands and, although the Habsburg monarchy "remained closely entwined with the Empire", the Habsburgs deliberately refrained from including their other territories in its framework. The obligation was only in effect if Vienna or the Empire were threatened. It incorporates the imperial mitre in the form of two plates of gold, which rise up within the circlet on each side of the central arch and curve in toward it, giving the crown the appearance of a helmet or kamelaukion. [237] The Diet was theoretically superior to the emperor himself. The crown has a single arch (or hoop) from the front to the back plate with the name and imperial style of Conrad II (1024-1039) in seed pearls On the left side of this arch these seed pearls spell out the words "Conrad, by the Grace of God" (CHUONRADUS DEI GRATIA), while on the right side they read "Emperor of the Romans, Augustus" (ROMANORU[M] IMPERATOR AUG[USTUS]). It must not be confused with the Imperial Army (Kaiserliche Armee) of the Emperor. But as Hungary, unlike Bohemia, was not part of the Empire, the imperial aid for Hungary depended on political factors. At the Battle of Vienna (1683), the Army of the Holy Roman Empire, led by the Polish King John III Sobieski, decisively defeated a large Turkish army, stopping the western Ottoman advance and leading to the eventual dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire in Europe. It is now kept in the Imperial Treasury (Kaiserliche Schatzkammer) at the Hofburg in Vienna, Austria. Omissions? An imperial assembly at the fields of Roncaglia in 1158 reclaimed imperial rights in reference to Justinian I's Corpus Juris Civilis. [86][87] During the Ottonian era, imperial women played a prominent role in political and ecclesiastic affairs, often combining their functions as religious leader and advisor, regent or co-ruler, notably Matilda of Ringelheim, Eadgyth, Adelaide of Italy, Theophanu, Matilda of Quedlinburg.[88][89][90][91]. The Emperor had to be male and of noble blood. [104], Henry IV repudiated the Pope's interference and persuaded his bishops to excommunicate the Pope, whom he famously addressed by his born name "Hildebrand", rather than his regnal name "Pope Gregory VII". For the Pope, it meant that the Catholic Church had the protection of the most powerful ruler in Europe. Barring the loss of Franche-Comt in 1678, the external borders of the Empire did not change noticeably from the Peace of Westphalia which acknowledged the exclusion of Switzerland and the Northern Netherlands, and the French protectorate over Alsace to the dissolution of the Empire. [249], Until the 15th century the elected emperor was crowned and anointed by the Pope in Rome, among some exceptions in Ravenna, Bologna and Reims. in 1424, with Bohemia suffering the troubles of the Hussite Wars, Sigismund had them relocated to Visegrd and then to Nuremberg, where they were permanently kept in the Heilig-Geist-Spital except for the time of coronations (in Aachen until 1531, then in Frankfurt from 1562). Though he had made his son Henry king of Sicily before marching on Germany, he still reserved real political power for himself. In the territories (not at the level of the Empire), power became increasingly bundled: whoever owned the land had jurisdiction, from which other powers derived. [143] In practice, it became the basic law throughout Germany, displacing Germanic local law to a large extent, although Germanic law was still operative at the lower courts. At the same time the lands ruled by the electors of Saxony, Bavaria, and Brandenburg (prior to the acquisition of Prussia) were all close to 40,000km2 (15,000sqmi); the Duke of Brunswick-Lneburg (later the Elector of Hanover) had a territory around the same size. The medieval idea of unifying all Christendom into a single political entity, with the Church and the Empire as its leading institutions, began to decline. 2. It is estimated to peak around 1050 at about 1.0 Mm, While Charlemagne and his successors assumed variations of the title. On the eastern front, the Turks continued to loom large as a threat, although war would mean further compromises with the Protestant princes, and so the Emperor sought to avoid it. The other four plates, or 'stone-plates' (Steinplatten), are of various sizes and decorated solely with precious stone and pearls in raised filigree settings. Imperial Crown, also called Crown Of Charlemagne, crown created in the 10th century for coronations of the Holy Roman emperors. You can also find further information in our data protection declaration. We employ strictly necessary and analysis cookies. King Friedrich Wilhelm III had discovered that betraying the Russians and . The reform-minded Pope Gregory VII was determined to oppose such practices, which led to the Investiture Controversy with Henry IV (r. 10561106), the King of the Romans and Holy Roman Emperor. Map of the Roman Empire at its Largest Extent, with Provinces, in 150 AD. I know after Napoleon and his army won the battle of Austerlitz the Holy Roman Empire and Emperor officially were dissolved and Francis II became simply Emperor of Austria. [127] With encouragement from Maximilian and his humanists, iconic spiritual figures were reintroduced or became notable. [178] William Thompson agrees with M.N.Pearson that this distinctively European phenomenon happened because in the Italian and Hanseatic cities which lacked resources and were "small in size and population", the rulers (whose social status was not much higher than the merchants) had to pay attention to trade. These were partly a result of the explosion in population; they also concentrated economic power at strategic locations. Immediately after Hitler fell and . The conflict between several papal claimants (two anti-popes and the "legitimate" Pope) ended only with the Council of Constance (14141418); after 1419 the Papacy directed much of its energy to suppressing the Hussites. Hrter, Karl. "Mediatization" was the process of annexing the lands of one imperial estate to another, often leaving the annexed some rights. The only princely member states of the Holy Roman Empire that have preserved their status as monarchies until today are the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the Principality of Liechtenstein. Collins English Dictionary - Complete and Unabridged, 12th . Save settings The gem shines powerfully and it is said that it once even shone at night, but not in our time, but it is said to preserve the honour of the empire. [211][212][213] During his rule, Maximilian I had a double focus on both the East and the West. Marriage and inheritance strategies, following by (usually defensive) warfare, played a great role both for the Luxemburgs and the Habsburgs. As the Fuggers as well as other trading companies based their most important branches in these cities, these traders gained access to these systems as well. An identical copy was made in 1915 by order of Wilhelm II for display in Aachen, where it is still kept in the Krnungssaal of Aachen Town Hall, built in the 14th century on the remains of Charlemagne's palace. After his victory, Frederick did not act upon his promise to keep the two realms separate. Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor. [262], A credible estimate for 1800 gives 2728million inhabitants for the Empire (which at this point had already lost the remaining Low Countries, Italy, and the Left Bank of the Rhine in the 1797 Treaty of Campo Fornio) with an overall breakdown as follows:[263]. It was thus increasingly in the king's own interest to strengthen the power of the territories, since the king profited from such a benefit in his own lands as well. Imaginary portrait of Charlemagne, painting (copy of an original by Albrecht Drer), c. 1600. . A further important constitutional move at Roncaglia was the establishment of a new peace mechanism for the entire empire, the Landfrieden, with the first imperial one being issued in 1103 under Henry IV at Mainz.[112][113]. It was designed to surmount or incorporate a mitre, which was worn with the points at the sides, and therefore is crossed only by a single arch, from front to back. The first time is mentioned in the 12th century. The actual end of the empire did not come for two centuries. Also it was recommended that their sons learn the imperial languages German, Latin, Italian, and Czech. [citation needed]. The Holy Roman Empire was a great empire, it had its ups and downs but in all it was an amazing success. German kings had been elected since the 9th century; at that point they were chosen by the leaders of the five most important tribes (the Salian Franks of Lorraine, Ripuarian Franks of Franconia, Saxons, Bavarians, and Swabians). After the 13th century, the relevance of the Reichsgut faded, even though some parts of it did remain until the Empire's end in 1806. RT @Tjeerd001: The gold crown of the Holy Roman Empire during the 10th century,set with gemstones,pearls and enamel . taken from "Meyers Kleines Konversationslexikon in sechs Bnden. After a king is elected by a group of prince-electors, the Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor is held. Above the front plate and in front of the arch is a jeweled cross with an engraving of the crucified Christ on its reverse side, originally a pectoral cross said to have belonged to Henry II and only later attached to the Imperial Crown. Although Charles of Valois had the backing of pro-French Henry, Archbishop of Cologne, many were not keen to see an expansion of French power, least of all Clement V. The principal rival to Charles appeared to be Rudolf, the Count Palatine. More recent estimates use less outdated criteria, but they remain guesswork. The imperial throne was transferred by election, but Emperors often ensured their own sons were elected during their lifetimes, enabling them to keep the crown for their families. Not all imperial territories were included within the imperial circles, even after 1512; the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were excluded, as were Switzerland, the imperial fiefs in northern Italy, the lands of the Imperial Knights, and certain other small territories like the Lordship of Jever. By the late 14th century, the powerful league enforced its interests with military means, if necessary. Imperial Crown, also called Crown Of Charlemagne, crown created in the 10th century for coronations of the Holy Roman emperors. 3 The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire. Even the trigger for the conception of the Imperial Reform under Sigismund was the idea of helping the Church to put its house in order. MandMiscShop. The Holy Roman Empire should not be mistaken for the Roman Empire.. Accept all cookies. In 1312, Henry VII of the House of Luxembourg was crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor since Frederick II. zur Niederlegung der Krone des Heiligen Rmischen Reiches Wikisource", "Mlyusz (Elemr). It originated with the partition of the Frankish Empire following the Treaty of Verdun in 843, and lasted until its dissolution in 1806 during the . Jahrhundert unter dem Einfluss der Konfessionen", "H-German Roundtable on Smith, Germany: A Nation in Its Time Before, During, and After Nationalism, 15002000 | H-German | H-Net", "Forster on Brady Jr., 'German Histories in the Age of Reformations, 14001650' | H-German | H-Net", "A troubled marriage. Henry managed to defeat Rudolf, but was subsequently confronted with more uprisings, renewed excommunication, and even the rebellion of his sons. [45] The form "Holy Roman Empire" is attested from 1254 onward. Cookie settings Instead Henry, Count of Luxembourg, with the aid of his brother, Baldwin, Archbishop of Trier, was elected as Henry VII with six votes at Frankfurt on 27 November 1308. Otto's being crowned emperor marked the beginning of a succession of emperors that would continue unbroken for over eight centuries. The Holy Roman Empire. [63][64] The Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. The Western Roman Empire was thus revived (Latin: renovatio Romanorum imperii) by transferring it to the Frankish king. The Hohenstaufen dream of world empire ended with Frederick's death in 1250 though. An argument for continuity should not, however, be confused with a claim for stasis. The smaller four plaques, or 'picture-plates' (Bildplatten), bear pictorial representations of figures and scenes from the Bible and inscriptions in cloisonn enamel in Byzantine "sunk" (Senkschmelz) style. From 1508, after his election, the German King no longer called for the coronation by the Pope either, but considered himself Roman emperor directly. "[228] Imperial marriage strategies had double-edged effects for the Holy Roman Empire though. judy norton children; court ordered community service california [92] Their son, Otto III, came to the throne only three years old, and was subjected to a power struggle and series of regencies until his age of majority in 994. After 1438, the Holy Roman Empire was ruled by the House of Habsburg, with only one brief exception. This comprehensive list included public roads, tariffs, coining, collecting punitive fees, and the seating and unseating of office-holders. The Crown was held in various locations during the first few centuries after its creation, including Limburg Abbey, Harzburg Castle, the Imperial Palace of Goslar, Trifels Castle, the Imperial Palace of Haguenau[de], Waldburg Castle, Krautheim Castle, Kyburg Castle, Rheinfelden Castle, and the Alter Hof in Munich. [h][14] The decision by Charles IV is the subject of debates: on one hand, it helped to restore peace in the lands of the Empire, that had been engulfed in civil conflicts after the end of the Hohenstaufen era; on the other hand, the "blow to central authority was unmistakable". In 1212, King Ottokar I (bearing the title "king" since 1198) extracted a Golden Bull of Sicily (a formal edict) from the emperor Frederick II, confirming the royal title for Ottokar and his descendants, and the Duchy of Bohemia was raised to a kingdom. The rim was adorned with side pendants that have been lost. [32][33] Henry the Fowler, the founder of the medieval German state (ruled 919936),[34] has sometimes been considered the founder of the Empire as well. [71] At this point in time, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy. [123] Thomas Brady Jr. opines that Charles IV's intention was to end contested royal elections (from the Luxembourghs' perspective, they also had the advantage that the King of Bohemia had a permanent and preeminent status as one of the Electors himself). When he attained sole rule after Frederick's death, he would continue this policy of brokerage, acting as the impartial judge between options suggested by the princes.[132][40]. It was divided into three classes. Since that time with the exception of the National Socialist era it has been preserved in the ViennaTreasury. Each circle had its own parliament, known as a Kreistag ("Circle Diet"), and one or more directors, who coordinated the affairs of the circle. Here you can view or change the cookie settings used on this domain. In Germany, the Emperor had repeatedly protected Henry the Lion against complaints by rival princes or cities (especially in the cases of Munich and Lbeck). The most powerful lords of the later empire were the Austrian Habsburgs, who ruled 240,000km2 (93,000sqmi) of land within the Empire in the first half of the 17th century, mostly in modern-day Austria and Czechia. After the fall of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, Charlemagne built an empire that extended more than 800 miles from east to west. [254] The Netherlands also had envoys in Regensburg. 65 ecclesiastical states with 14 percent of the total land area and 12 percent of the population; 45 dynastic principalities with 80 percent of the land and 80 percent of the population; 60 dynastic counties and lordships with 3 percent of the land and 3.5 percent of the population; 60 imperial towns with 1 percent of the land and 3.5 percent of the population; Imperial knights' territories, numbering into the several hundreds, with 2 percent of the land and 1 percent of the population. Francis' House of Habsburg-Lorraine survived the demise of the empire, continuing to reign as Emperors of Austria and Kings of Hungary until the Habsburg empire's final dissolution in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I. Later Emperors dispensed with the papal coronation altogether, being content with the styling Emperor-Elect: the last Emperor to be crowned by the Pope was Charles V in 1530. It goes back to the renovatio imperii (the renewal of the concept of Empire) under Emperor Otto I and was the most important symbol of the office of emperor in the Holy Roman Empire. Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, inheriting both German aspirations for imperial sovereignty and the Norman Sicilian kings' dream of hegemony in the Mediterranean, had ambitious design for a world empire. The emperor suddenly died in 1197, leading to the partial collapse of his empire. Fine Art Print/Poster (4948) Since St. Edward's Crown is only used for the actual . . [l][m], Peter Wilson estimates the Empire's population at 25 million in 1700, of whom 5 million lived in Imperial Italy. In Italian and Hanseatic cities like Genoa and Venice, Hamburg and Lbeck, warrior-merchants appeared and pioneered raiding-and-trading maritime empires. St. Edward's Crown has been part of the Crown Jewels since 1661 and is used for the actual crowning of the new Sovereign. Simultaneously, the Catholic Church experienced crises of its own, with wide-reaching effects in the Empire. Meanwhile, the German princes had elected another king, Rudolf of Swabia.[107]. The Habsburg dynasty: Here you can read potted biographies, examine portraits from seven centuries and dip into the historical contexts of pastepochs. Though a vassal of king Philip, Henry was bound by few national ties, and thus suitable as a compromise candidate. However, that jurisdiction at the time did not include legislation, which was virtually non-existent until well into the 15th century. God revealed the meaning of this prophecy at the time of the sixth "king," or leader, of the Holy Roman Empire: Adolf Hitler. This crown's form is not revealed, . [clarification needed]. [144][145][146][147] Other than the desire to achieve legal unity and other factors, the adoption also highlighted the continuity between the Ancient Roman empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Upon Louis' death in 840, it passed to his son Lothair, who had been his co-ruler. [62][full citation needed] In 751, Martel's son Pepin became King of the Franks, and later gained the sanction of the Pope. Such an ecclesiastic or Churchman was a, Habsburg Monarchy: 5,350,000 (including 3 million in the Bohemian crown lands), Duchy of Bavaria (later Electorate of Bavaria): 800,000, Electorates of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne: 300400,000 altogether. [253], When Regensburg served as the site of the Diet, France and, in the late 1700s, Russia, had diplomatic representatives there. It was definitely worth it! To a greater extent than in other medieval kingdoms such as France and England, the emperors were unable to gain much control over the lands that they formally owned. Both crowns are preserved in the national treasury in Vienna. The second class, the Council of Princes, consisted of the other princes. The new corporate German Nation, instead of simply obeying the emperor, negotiated with him. Charlemagne was a Frank. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War allowed Calvinism, but Anabaptists, Arminians and other Protestant communities would still lack any support and continue to be persecuted well until the end of the Empire. The imperial law code of 1532 was used in parts of Hungary until the mid-seventeenth century, but otherwise Hungary had its own legal system and did not import Austrian ones. Conrad's death was followed by the Interregnum, during which no king could achieve universal recognition, allowing the princes to consolidate their holdings and become even more independent as rulers. "Instead, they developed their own institutions to manage what was, effectively, a parallel dynastic-territorial empire and which gave them an overwhelming superiority of resources, in turn allowing them to retain an almost unbroken grip on the imperial title over the next three centuries. Still, Otto II formed marital ties with the east when he married the Byzantine princess Theophanu. Foreign powers, including France and Sweden, intervened in the conflict and strengthened those fighting Imperial power, but also seized considerable territory for themselves. Another new concept of the time was the systematic founding of new cities by the Emperor and by the local dukes. No law required him to be a Catholic, but as the majority of the Electors adhered to this faith, no Protestant was ever elected. English: This is a heraldic representation of the crown of the Holy Empire. [108] The political power of the Empire was maintained, but the conflict had demonstrated the limits of the ruler's power, especially in regard to the Church, and it robbed the king of the sacral status he had previously enjoyed. Territories ruled by a hereditary nobleman, such as a prince, archduke, duke, or count. The Holy Roman Empire was a loosely joined union of smaller kingdoms which held power in western and central Europe between A.D. 962 and 1806. The reverse shows the Emperor Otto I with the Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome in the background, where his coronation took place. [59] In the late 5th and early 6th centuries, the Merovingians, under Clovis I and his successors, consolidated Frankish tribes and extended hegemony over others to gain control of northern Gaul and the middle Rhine river valley region. Each of the affiliated cities retained the legal system of its sovereign and, with the exception of the Free imperial cities, had only a limited degree of political autonomy. [49], By the end of the 18th century, the term "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" fell out of official use. Although made for Otto the Great (912-973), it was named for Charlemagne, the first Holy Roman emperor. Later territorially only the Kingdom of Germany and Bohemia remained, with the Burgundian territories lost to France. The Roman Empire was the greatest ancient empire of Europe. The organizational structure of the Holy Roman Empire, as depicted in the Nuremberg Chronicles, c. 1493, via the Manchester Historian. Some, like Mortimer Chambers,[72] opine that the Carolingian Renaissance made possible the subsequent renaissances (even though by the early tenth century, the revival already diminished).[73]. Fearing Frederick's concentration of power, the Pope finally excommunicated him. With these drastic changes, much discussion emerged in the 15th century about the Empire itself. Except for a period under Rudolf II (reigned 15701612) who moved to Prague, Vienna kept its primacy under his successors. After Philip was murdered in a private squabble in 1208, Otto prevailed for a while, until he began to also claim Sicily. Throughout the first half of its history the Holy Roman Empire was reigned over by a travelling court. Most rulers maintained one or a number of favourites Imperial palace sites, where they would advance development and spent most of their time: Charlemagne (Aachen from 794), Otto I (Magdeburg, from 955),[240] Frederick II (Palermo 12201254), Wittelsbacher (Munich 13281347 and 17441745), Habsburger (Prague 13551437 and 15761611; and Vienna 14381576, 16111740 and 17451806). The Teutonic Knights were invited to Prussia by Duke Konrad of Masovia to Christianize the Prussians in 1226. Originally posted by Zoid: Originally posted by sander493210: stick with your current empire. He was the first of the Habsburgs to hold a royal title, but he was never crowned emperor. In the long run, the two Courts functioned in parallel, sometimes overlapping. [citation needed]. (, Populations of 1.6 million and 1.5 million given for the areas within the borders of modern Belgium and the Netherlands, respectively, around 1600; the Spanish holdings in the Burgundian Circle also included Franche-Comte, Luxembourg, and other small territories. Another crown, more in keeping with Renaissance taste, was made for the emperor in 1602. Frederick supported a succession of antipopes before finally making peace with Alexander in 1177. It has been kept permanently in Vienna since that date. In 1190, Frederick participated in the Third Crusade, dying in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia.[114]. [1] The first preserved mention of it is from the 12th century, assuming (as is probable) it is the same crown. Not surprisingly, it is the second best-maintained Roman city in the entire Middle East. They were roughly matched in size by the prince-bishoprics of Salzburg and Mnster. Simms notes that their choice was a contractual one, tying Ferdinand's rulership in these kingdoms and territories to his election as King of the Romans and his ability to defend Central Europe. [128], The vision for a simultaneous reform of the Empire and the Church on a central level began with Sigismund (reigned 14331437, King of the Romans since 1411), who, according to historian Thomas Brady Jr., "possessed a breadth of vision and a sense of grandeur unseen in a German monarch since the thirteenth century". During the Thirty Years' War, the Duke of Bavaria was given the right to vote as the eighth elector, and the Duke of Brunswick-Lneburg (colloquially, Hanover) was granted a ninth electorate; additionally, the Napoleonic Wars resulted in several electorates being reallocated, but these new electors never voted before the Empire's dissolution. This state developed into modern Germany. The Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire as it was called, was still thriving in the year 800CE with Irene of Athens as the reigning Empress. When there was danger, an Army of the Empire was mustered from among the elements constituting it,[239] in order to conduct an imperial military campaign or Reichsheerfahrt. Date/Time Thumbnail Dimensions User Comment; current: 01:48, 8 September 2009: 262 300 [25] In theory and diplomacy, the emperors were considered primus inter pares, regarded as first among equals among other Catholic monarchs across Europe. Otto the Great reunited most of the lands of Charlemagne's empire, which had been divided and given to Charlemagne's sons. [272], In addition, all Protestant subjects of a Catholic ruler and vice versa were guaranteed the rights that they had enjoyed on that date. Imperial rights had been referred to as regalia since the Investiture Controversy but were enumerated for the first time at Roncaglia. The eastward settlement expanded the influence of the empire to include Pomerania and Silesia, as did the intermarriage of the local, still mostly Slavic, rulers with German spouses. Henceforth, the conversion of a ruler to another faith did not entail the conversion of his subjects. [36] Scholars generally concur in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, describing a gradual assumption of the imperial title and role.[37][30]. [105] The Pope, in turn, excommunicated the king, declared him deposed, and dissolved the oaths of loyalty made to Henry. [19], From the accession of Otto I in 962 until the twelfth century, the Empire was the most powerful monarchy in Europe. The twelve stones on the front and back plates are probably a direct reference to the twelve stones of the Jewish high priest's breastplate or hoshen (Exodus 39:9-14) and to the twelve foundation stones of the New Jerusalem in the Revelation to John (Revelation 21: 19-21).

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